Caveat Emptor Is this common Law Maxim undermined Essay

Admonition Emptor Is this customary Law Maxim subverted - Essay Example This demonstration is notwithstanding the current law and likewise a customer as a rule has a cure either in contract or in the tort of carelessness (Slack 1997). The term Caveat emptor suggests that let the purchaser be careful. It is a custom-based law deal idea that opens the purchaser to the hazard intrinsic in an exchange. Despite the fact that it includes the rule of opportunity to contract, by the by suggested guarantees with regards to offer of merchandise are inert in it (Rossini 1998) The Sale of Goods Act 1893 was revised by a few bits of enactment, a portion of these are the Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994, the Misrepresentation Act 1967, the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 and the Consumer Protection Act 1987 (Jones and Benson 2003). This demonstration was the primary bit of enactment that gave assurance to the purchaser. As of late there had been a spate of enactments, whose object was to improve the security that had been made accessible to buyers. A few occurrences of such acts are the Misrepresentation Act 1967, the altered Sale of Goods Act (Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994 and the Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1994) and the Unfair Terms Regulations (S.I 1994/3159. Uncalled for Terms Regulations in Consumer Contract Regulations 1994). Thusly the admonition emptor regulation has been dynamically subverted and subbed by the precept of proviso venditor or let the dealer be careful. The prominent legitimate light Atiyah opined that the fundamental standard of law was one of admonition venditor as opposed to one of proviso emptor (Atiyah and Adams 1995). Likewise, the European Union as a victor of the privileges of the buyer has intended to acquaint enactment that would present with offer further insurance on the privileges of buyers. The Directive on the Sale of Consumer Goods and Associated Guarantees is a significant advance toward this path (EUROPA 2006). There has been a stamped hesitance with respect to legal arrangement to meddle with contracts between parties having equivalent dealing power. The Unfair Contract Terms Act endeavors to stifle the prohibition and impediment provisions that happen in purchaser agreements and agreements that depend on one of the getting equalities' standard terms (Unfair Contract Terms Act (as revised on the first of October, 2003) 1977). The above demonstration is inapplicable to business contracts when all is said in done. In Photo Productions Limited v Securicor the House of Lords allowed Securicor to maintain a strategic distance from obligation for the demonstrations of one of its representatives (Photo Production Ltd v Securicor Transport Ltd 1980). On account of Slater and others v Finning Ltd, the House of Lords held that if an item fizzled for the explanation that it had been utilized for a reason other than that it had been intended for then the merchant was pardoned of any risk for such disappointment (Slater v Finning Ltd 1996). This was like the choice in Griffths v Peter Conway Ltd, in which the purchaser had hidden from the dealer with respect to what use was to be made of the products (Griffths v Peter Conway Ltd 1939). This demonstrates unmistakably that there has been an inclination for admonition venditor with regards to the suggested state of appropriateness in business law. The legitimate results of the standard of admonition emptor require the purchasers to attempt

You have chosen to return to college to finish your degree. Describe Essay

You have decided to come back to school to complete your degree. Depict reasons why you settled on this choice and convince a companion to do likewise - Essay Example In the principal decade of the 21st century the United States lost 5.8 million assembling positions (Americanmanufacturing, 2011). The occupations accessible in the US commercial center have moved into the information and administration economy. So as to contend in the new position commercial center it is basic to get proper training at a licensed school or college. Without a higher education the main occupations that are accessible are the lowest pay permitted by law employments and even those are getting scarcer and organizations are weakening those occupations by offering low maintenance rather than all day work. The joblessness rate in the United States has gone up during the most recent couple of years. The joblessness in the United States in July 2011 was 9.1% (Bls, 2011). Because of the way that more individuals are jobless the degree of rivalry was gone up and individuals that have better qualifications are landing the positions in the commercial center. The most significant instructive certification bosses look for in newcomers is an advanced degree. I have understood that the main path for me to find a decent line of work is to return to class to gain a degree. An advanced degree expands a person’s opportunities to find a new line of work and the activity acquired will have higher wages. An individual with a bachelor’s certificate will win an extra $0.9 million over their lifetime in contrast with a secondary school graduate; while individuals with a master’s qualification will gain $1.3 in excess of a secondary school recognition and $0.4 million more than a bache lor’s qualification (Longley, 2011). The past limitations that occasionally hurt the capacity of grown-ups to get an advanced degree do not make a difference anymore. For example a working grown-up once in a while had the reason that he was unable to return to school as a result of business commitments. Time used to be a variable that hurt a great deal of working grown-ups. Because of advances in innovation there are arrangements accessible for working grown-ups. Online colleges, for example, the

International Political Economy (Choose Any One From The List.) Essay

International Political Economy (Choose Any One From The List.) Essay International Political Economy (Choose Any One From The List.) â€" Essay Example > What is globalisation? Globalisation, although only recently popular, is not a new concept. Most people do not understand what globalisation is and it is approached as if it’s a taboo subject, almost entirely out of humanities control. However, globalisation has been around for centuries at best and life as we know it today is a result of changes that have occurred over an extremely long period of time. Classifying globalisation itself is not an easy task because the term is used in relation and correlation with a myriad of processes. Most people take the idea of globalisation to mean the spreading similarities amongst nations; the concept does not just adhere to this alone though. In its most basic form globalisation can refer to a process whereby similar events take place in more than one part of the world simultaneously. These events are not mere coincidences but are connected to one another and there is a consistent spread and increase in the number of connections between †œdiscrete national entities, ” (Stalker, 2000:2). This definition however, points more towards internationalization and in a strict sense globalisation transcends simple connections. There is not a doubt that the process stated above denotes the characteristics of globalisation, the missing link here is the fact that it’s one step ahead of internationalization i. e. it doesn’t just consist of countries connection at a level whereby events occur simultaneously, it literally consists of a plane at which “discrete national entities are themselves dissolving so that all major political and economic decisions will ultimately be transmitted globally, ” (Stalker, 2000:2). This is a supposed new world that has taken centuries to construct. It has resulted in the literal death of geography and has made impossible the existence of a stand alone state. No country can survive without interaction with other countries at this point and time. A century ago this kind of a world could no t have been imagined; the heights that have been achieved could not have been envisioned. The best example of this is China; it was a closed economy that kept itself locked from the world markets for most part in the former years. But if you look at it now, china is everywhere. You can buy anything from toasters to Chinese clothes. The communist country had resolved to keep itself shut off from the outside world but even with strict censorships and control it is now taking its place amongst the world heavy weights, and it’s here to stay. It wouldn’t be a stretch to say that if the Chinese economy was to collapse right now, the world market would suffer another crisis because almost every major market in the world is affected by the Chinese market which has become one of the main world suppliers in almost everything that can be bought or sold (Scholte, 2000). The effects of globalisation can be seen all over the world from people listening to hip hop music in Japan to Americans serving Indian samosas with coffee. Cultures have been traded along with norms, values and beliefs all over the world. It isn’t just about the world markets; the world itself has mixed within itself.

The Lack Of Female Education Contraception - 891 Words

The possibility that a young woman does not wish to have children or does not feel ready upon marriage is essentially ignored in most developing nations. Should a woman wish to postpone childbearing, she may encounter difficulties finding contraceptive methods. â€Å"The most commonly reported reasons for unmet need [for contraception] are lack of knowledge, health concerns, and social disapproval† (Casterline Sinding, 2000 as cited in Levine et al., 2006). The lack of female education about contraception in countries where it would be of greatest aid is a major indicator of why maternal mortality is still such a prevalent issue. In American, â€Å"woman have to get prescriptions for contraceptives from their health care providers†, and there is a multitude of information available to women who wish to use contraception (Hansman, 2014). Many women in poor areas of developing nations do not have regular access to health care providers, resulting in both lack of inf ormation and materials to implement family planning practices. Contraception in general is a delicate matter due to the stigma attached in societies where high fertility is culturally valued. Reactions from â€Å"government policy [or] the way a husband might perceive his wife’s use of birth control† can be deterrents for a woman to abandon her own desires to refrain from pregnancy (Hansman, 2014). It can be argued that even if proper contraceptive methods were provided to women in developing nations, the actual usage isShow MoreRelatedLow Income Black And Hispanic Adolescent Females Essay1532 Words   |  7 Pagesand Hispanic adolescent females you may ask? They are at higher risk, than other ethnicities, for acquiring an STD and/or experiencing an unplanned pregnancy. Increased utilization of dual contraception is of great importance in these communities. 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TraditionalRead MoreSexual Activity Among Teens835 Words   |  4 PagesHow does environmental factors, sex education, etc; lead to ; lead to sexual activity which can cause pregnancy and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. Female teenagers in 1995 had first sexual intercourse at a younger age than in 1988. Females who have had their first sexual experience before age 15 was at 19% up 8% from 1988. about 35% of first sexual intercourse experience takes place without the use of any contraception mainly because females say their first time is usually spontaneousRead MoreThe Prevention Of Teenage Pregnancy Essay1513 Words   |  7 PagesAn issue that is currently plaguing American teenagers today is the access to different types of contraception. This lack of access can lead to higher rates of teenage pregnancy and an increase in sexually transmitted diseases among teenagers. 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According to the CDC, in 2015, there were 229,715 babies born to adolescent females ages between 15-19, or a total of 22.3 live births per 1,000 in this age group in the United States; almost 89% of these births were from unmarried mothers (Centers for Disease ControlRead MoreThe Determinants of Teenage Pregnancy Using the Seedhouse Grid Diagram (1986).2460 Words   |  10 PagesIntroduction The main determinant of teenage pregnancy is commonly seen to be poor or lack of sexual education, but this essay will outline and explore further options such as social and economic issues including the involvement of education via both schooling and the media on sexual attitudes influencing adolescent sexual behaviour. Pregnancy amongst adolescents is common around the world; however different cultures and different geographical regions have various explanations for teenage pregnancyRead MoreDiscuss the causes of high rates of population growth1504 Words   |  7 Pagesgrowth. Religion plays a large part in the rate of population increase as it affects birth rates with its views on contraception and abortion. Islam and Roman Catholicism are absolutely opposed to the use of contraception, as followers believe that sex is purely for procreation. In nations that are strongly influenced by religions with views such as these, the lack of use of contraception means that birth rates are high and therefore the rate of population increase follows suit. In more developed areasRead MoreThe Importance Of Sexual Education In Iran747 Words   |  3 Pagesof reproductive and health-related education and resources available to women, the result of which are issues such as high rates HIV/AIDS, and the continuation of harmful practices such as female genital mutilation. Sexual education in Iran is considered a taboo topic, and when it is discussed, it is often biased, heteronormative, and male-pleasure centered. The lack of information about sexual health, including about sexually transmitted diseases, contraception, and more, has contributed to problemsRead MoreUnintended Pregnancy Among Adolescents : An Important Health Challenge1224 Words   |  5 Pagespregnancy that is unwanted or mistimed for any reason. Among the adolescent populations, more than 4 out of 5 pregnancies were reported as unintended (Finer, 2010). The high percentage of unintended pregnancies in adolescent females involve improper maintenance or lack of education. Approximately half of unintended pregnancies are due to contraceptive failure, largely owing to inconsistent or incorrect use (Winner, Peipert, Zhao, Buckel, Madden, 2012). An adolescent mother who conceives an unintendedRead MoreTeenage Pregnancy Is A Public Health Issue1637 Words   |  7 PagesTeenage birth rates, defined as live births per one thousand 15-19-year-old US females, declined by 10% from 2012 to 2013 from 29.4 to 26.5. In fact, the birth rate has been on a steady decline over the past 20 years, from 61.8 in 1991 to 26.5 in 2013. Teenage pregnancy represents both a health and social inequality in our society. Specifically, teenage childbearing is a public health issue because teenage mothers are more likely to experience negative social outcomes such as dropping out of school

Personal Narrative Reflection Paper - 1813 Words

This class has shaped the way I view education in a positive and drastic way. I had previously taken this course online as well and my end result was a low grade but that was because I did not put in the effort and I failed to read the on course text. I chose to repeat this class to raise my GPA and to get a higher education by learning how to be a better student and person. I did not think much of this class because I found it kind of boring to read about managing my life and I thought I already knew how to do that in all honesty. I was proven wrong and I decided to put in the effort and was amazed by my results from the start of this class, to how drasticly they changed towards the end of this class, I feel like a new discovered person†¦show more content†¦In other words, my communication style allows me to be responsible and I am someone others can trust with anything. In the future I will be able to let others know how I learn and communicate best in order to build stron g relationships with my family, friends and coworkers as I realize just how important communicating is. The learning styles unit had us taking multiple different evaluations and the class used the textbook and two online inventories that determined my learning style. My results showed that learn by thinking, doing, logical and I also have a multimodal learning preference. I have noticed that when I learn a new subject I often times learn many ways by taking notes, listening and looking at pictures or examples. I have to analyze everything and read directions over and over again to get the hang of it and it sometimes makes me a slow learned but when I take my time and go at my own pace, I notice that I get the job very well done and people appreciate that. This is the first time I have ever received a good grade and that’s because I tools like my learning style to help me and I am determined to be the best student I can be for the fall semester. I am excited to use my learning style in class and watch as I get a good grade on my test. Setting goals and achieving them in this course was very helpful and believable for me and my goals were health related and education related. The goal that IShow MoreRelatedPersonal Narrative Reflection Paper1234 Words   |  5 Pagesrelated crises (AKA the millions of times I left papers till the last minute), my time belonged to the first years. When I took the job, I knew that was the commitment I was making. And honestly, I loved the job. I loved it so much that I’m doing it again my third year, but as a full-blown RA this time. There was also only a few times that my top two priorities conflicted together, such as a frosh (first year) wanting to vent to someone, but I had a paper due in an hour. 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I have heard many testimonies telling about their struggles and how they have overcome them. Although, I may feel as though I do not have an elaborate or super life-changing story - I realize I have my ownRead MoreStructure of Personal Narrative797 Words   |  4 PagesCLRC Writing Center Structure of a Personal Narrative Essay â€Å"Narrative† is a term more commonly known as â€Å"story.† Narratives written for college or personal narratives, tell a story, usually to some point, to illustrate some truth or insight. Following are some tools to help you structure your personal narrative, breaking it down into parts. The â€Å"Hook† Start your paper with a statement about your story that catches the reader’s attention, for example: a relevant quotation, question, factRead MoreEng 225 Week 5 Film Critique Final Paper836 Words   |  4 PagesENG 225 Week 5 Film Critique Final Paper Click Link Below To Buy: http://hwcampus.com/shop/eng-225/eng-225-week-5-film-critique-final-paper/ Or Visit www.hwcampus.com ENG 225 Week 5 Film Critique Final Paper Focus of the Final Film Critique Throughout this course, you have been compiling a blog and writing essays that analyze various elements of film such as theme, cinematic techniques, and genre. 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Throughout the semester with the assigned reading assignments and the given practical writing exercises I have come to grasp a vague understanding, I had never been taught how to write essays correctly. I am the product of Clark County Educational system. I have always struggled through my last classes and hoped to get out of my struggles this semester. One the greatest challenges thatRead More`` Twilight Zone Of The Digital Age ``1032 Words   |  5 PagesA block feature that reduces an individual’s presence to the crystallized static of no-signal white noise; an electronic chip implant that records all visual and auditory experiences and replays personal memories on screen; a digital copy of one’s consciousness configured by code; and an app that assembles the internet personas of the dead in order to recreate them—these are some of the futuristic devices portrayed in the hit British television series Black Mirror. 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Gender culture and ethnicity Free Essays

The understanding of the terms gender, ethnicity, and culture and their influence on the family is the core factor in this paper. These terms have diverse definitions though the understanding is basically the same. This is because the terms are applied differently in different social set-ups. We will write a custom essay sample on Gender culture and ethnicity or any similar topic only for you Order Now Culture can refer to the common beliefs, values, symbols and meanings, passed on from one generation to another in time. Ethnicity would refer to a common ancestral linage, sense of belonging, and is a major factor in the determination of identity through which communities evolve and develop common value systems and. Gender, as a term has two components mainly role and identity it is the characteristics that society and individuals attach to males or females. Gender identity is the private sense of being masculine or feminine. While gender roles are the prescribed expectations of society towards men or women. Table of contents Abstract 2 Introduction 4 Understanding of gender, culture, and ethnicity 5 Family rituals, traditions, and transitions 7 Conclusion 9 Reference †¦10. Introduction The combined roles of gender, ethnicity, and culture have an important impact in any family set-up. While gender identity is a private perception of being masculine of feminine the expectations of society is what mainly determines an individual’s perception of the same (McGoldrick et al 1996). Although the roles of gender are dictated by the greater society transitions in families and exposure can bring a shift from the norm. While culture would refer to the common beliefs, values, symbols and meanings, passed on from one generation to another in time (Goldenburg Goldenburg, 2000), this is always subject to change as value systems are dynamic and are influenced by outside factors such as education and to a large extent globalization and its effects on individuals. While ethnicity would refer to a common ancestral linage and sense of belonging (McGoldrick et al,1996), it does not change what changes is its influence in the individual’s interpersonal relationships as other factors come into play. These factors are mainly exposure and education. Understanding of gender, culture, and ethnicity A three-generation family genogram. Legend Examples of gender roles in my family of origin. The gender roles in my family of origin were not quite clearly spelt out. This is because as society in Chile would demand the men were the family bread winners, and they carried the family’s vision. However, we were brought up from a tender age by our mother almost single handedly. The reason being my father had an alcoholic problem which led into a troubled marriage ending in divorce. My mother had to work to bring us up. The preservation of family traditions is the prerogative of the man and this was done by our paternal grandfather. Now that he is quite old, family traditions are no longer adhered to unlike the case in the past. People of different race or ethnic orientation, were not welcome in our family. The major reason being the older generation was not accommodating to them. The feeling among the family was the people of different race or ethnicity were second class citizens. The roles of men and women were not clear since in my family my father was absent and my mother performed the roles that society regarded as masculine such as working to raise the family. Women were normally expected to stay at home as housewives taking care of the children and day-day household chores. An outsider is any person who does not belong into our family ancestral blood-line or assimilated into the family by way of marriage. These were treated with suspicion and at times contempt. Whereas an insider is that person born into the blood-line or married into the family line, and were treated with respect. These messages have broadened my view of interpersonal relationships. Biases, prejudices, and stereotypes. Biases, prejudices, and stereotypes learnt: I came to look down upon domestic servants as a low class people. This is basically from the stereotyping in our society, since these jobs were mainly for the uneducated and were lowly paid. People of different color or ethnicity were seen as second class and were marginalized in every sphere of life including the job market. Education in our family was seen as the only means to getting acceptable standards of living. Family rituals, traditions, and transitions Rituals in my family. Saying prayers every day before dinner was a ritual our family grew up with. This occurred because my mother was a strong religious woman who instilled moral and religious values in us. She was a strong Catholic woman and prayers were the family cornerstone. Since my paternal grandparents are still alive and are the stronger side of our family, the entire family as well as the extended family needs to congregate at our grandparents’ home for holidays like Christmas. This will bring our father back into the family as we spend time together and reflect on the events of our lives as a family in the past year. It will help all the family appreciate each other and provide room for change where necessary. In developing a ritual for a family one has to first understand the daily or calendar routine of the family. A family ritual assists the family to develop close bonding. Spending good quality time together especially at the dinner table is one ritual that would serve this purpose. At this time the family members would reflect on the events of the day and issues that arise can be discussed at this time. Dinner needs to be served at a time convenient to all members of the family. This will assist the family to grow as a close knit unit where each family member is responsible for the general well being of the family as a whole. A tradition in my family. As we grew up one tradition was to visit our paternal grandparents every holiday. We would spend time with them at the beach over the summer holidays for as long as two months. They were a loving couple and very close to their family. The time we would spend with them helped me as I grew to appreciate family bonding as I felt the love and warmth they gave to all of us. This affected me directly because I did not see the same love and affection between my own parents. My parents were divorced after a troubled marriage, since my father was an alcoholic. The time spent with our grandparents made me appreciate the institution of marriage as a life-long commitment. Transition in my family. One major transition in our family was my father’s alcoholic problem. Alcoholism destroyed our family structure in that my parents got divorced when we were young children and we were brought up by our mother almost single-handedly. In my country Chile, men were the bread winners and household heads while women were basically housewives. This was however not the case in our family. Our family was a woman-headed household. It was my mother who instilled religious and moral values in us. She was the one who carried the family burden although our father would help us occasionally. A tradition in my family that needs to be changed. A tradition that needs to be changed in our family is that of employing maids, chauffeurs and all sorts of servants. As much as this helps in the growth of the national economy in terms of employment, at the family level it drains family resources and also encourages a dependency syndrome in the children. This is because they grow up seeing other people do things for them, and therefore lack a sense of responsibility. It does not help in molding children into responsible adults. This tradition needs to be changed and families should only employ a minimal number of servants leaving the children and young adults with some responsibilities to take care of. This would help our family in that the men would grow up dealing with their responsibilities as society demands and not leave their households to be headed by their wives. The women will grow to be strong women like our mother being able to provide for their families even when the men neglect responsibilities. Conclusion In conclusion, the influence of gender, culture and ethnicity has greatly molded my family. Gender, culture and ethnicity need to be understood in a modern sense since they are the major sources of stereotyping. The influence of exposure and education is what has positively impacted on the families inter personal relationships. References Goldeburg, I. , Goldenburg, H. (2000). Family therapy 5th ed. Australia: Brooks/Cole McGoldrick, M. , Giordano, J. , Pearce, J. (1996). Ethnicity and family therapy. New York. Guilford How to cite Gender culture and ethnicity, Papers

Relationship Between Attitudes And Job Satisfaction Of Employees

Question: Discuss about the Analyse The Relationship Between Attitudes And Job Satisfaction Of Employees. Answer: Introduction The attitudes and job satisfaction of employees have a substantial influence on the organisational behaviour and performance of a company. An attitude is defined as a state of mind. It referred as how an individual examines and think about situations which result in determining a persons behaviour (Truitt, 2011). In a company, employees can either have a positive or negative attitude which affects the performance of such enterprise. There are different ways of defining job satisfaction of employees in a firm. Aziri (2011) provided that job satisfaction is a positive feeling towards a persons job which encourages them to perform better at their job. Positive job satisfaction motivates employees to improve their performance, and they work towards achieving common organisational objectives. Motivation at work is defined as employees level of commitment, creativity and energy that bring them while performing their jobs. It is the reason for individuals desires, needs and actions. Manager s focus on implementing effective motivational theories in the firm in order to improve employee job satisfaction and improving overall firms performance (Lazaroiu, 2015). Organisational behaviour is defined as a study of human behaviour in an organisational setting. It focuses on studying both individuals and group performance and their activities within a working environment which assist managers in implementing appropriate strategic policies for achieving organisational goals. The aim of this report is to appraise and evaluate the impact of attitudes and job satisfaction on employees motivation at work. This report will evaluate the importance of motivation in the workplace and how managers can use effective motivational theories to improve the performance of employees. A variety of theories and model will be discussed in the report along with examples of different organisations. Further, the report will examine how organisational behaviour theories assist in understanding employ ees behaviour at work and its limitations. Importance of Attitudes and Job Satisfaction The attitudes of employees in an organisation play a crucial role in enhancing the performance of a firm. Furthermore, job satisfaction is another factor which has a significant impact on the performance of an enterprise. Managers focus on studying these topics since they provide crucial information which assists them in strategic planning. The top-levelmanagement can improve the performance of the company and its employees by positively influencing their behaviour (Avey, et al., 2011). Employees with a positive attitude are more likely to perform better at their job, whereas, negative attitude resulted in employee poor performance, absenteeism, corporate disputes, resistance, and others. The working environment and culture of an enterprise are also affected by the behaviour of its employees. Negative employees also adversely affect the behaviour of other employees and resulted in reducing their performance. It is necessary that senior-level executives understand the job satisfaction and attitude of employees in order to implement appropriate policies for positively affecting their productivity. In todays competitive business world, organisations focus on generating a competitive advantage by improving their working culture to positively influence employees attitudes (Bushra, Ahmad and Naveed, 2011). However, it is becoming difficult for managers to establish a positive working environment as the demand for skilled labour increases. Millennial and Generation Z employees did not prefer to work for a single company which makes it difficult for executives to retain them in the corporation. HR professionals are facing new challenges relating to attitudes and job performance, and they are required to implement strategic policies for addressing such issues. There are three crucial components of employee attitude which are represented in the ABC model of attitudes which provides that A stands for Affective, B for behavioural and C for cognitive. The study of these components is vital since it provides necessary information to top-level executives that assist them in implementing effective strategic policies that resulted in improving business processes. Employees have different types of attitude at the workplace such as job involvement, job satisfaction, engagement of workers, organisational commitment, perceived support for the firm and others (Voon, et al., 2011). These attitudes can be influenced by implementing different theory by senior level executives. The theories of attitude and behaviour of employees include Reinforcement theory, Social Cognitive theory, Single and Double Loop Learning theory and others. The Reinforcement theory focuses on reinforcing the behaviour of employees. It provides that if the behaviour of employees is not reinforced, then he/she will continue to act in a similar manner (Weiner, 2010). However, before implementing these strategies, it is necessary that HR managers assess the culture in the workplace and implement the strategy which is most suitable for the firm. It is difficult to achieve effectiveness in policies which are implemented without proper evaluation of the workplace culture. Key Theories/Models The Single and Double Loop Learning theory focuses on understanding how people learn within organisations. Single loop learning defines the ability to use feedback from employees to make continuous adaptations and adjustments to the performance of an enterprise. Double loop learning is referred as the ability to redefine and challenge the assumptions in order to improve performance and factors underlying performance standards of workers (Clow, 2012). Social Cognitive theory focuses on learning by observing actions of others and replicating their behaviours. These theories assist managers in understanding the attitude and behaviour of employees. In order to improve their job satisfaction, senior levelmanagement implements different motivational theories that motivate employees to improve their performance and achieve common organisational objectives (Bandura, 2011). There are a number of motivational theories that can be implemented by senior levelmanagement for motivating employees i n order to improve their performance. For example, Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene theory is one of the most popular motivational theory which assistsmanagement in assessing needs of employees and fulfilling them in order to improve their performance. Frederick Herzberg gave the theory in 1959, which provided that there are different job factors which resulted in satisfaction and other factors that prevent dissatisfaction. He classified the job factors into two categories: Hygiene factors and Motivational factors. Hygiene factors did not lead to job satisfaction of employees, but absence of these factors resulted in dissatisfaction of employees (Smith and Shields, 2013). Hygiene factors include elements such as company policies, salary package, physical working conditions, job security, fringe benefits, interpersonal relations and others. Motivational factors include elements such as recognition, promotional opportunities, sense of achievement, meaningfulness of the work, responsibility and others (Stello, 2011). Senior-level executives can use these factors to influence the performance of employees. However, this theory is not conclusive, and it is better for employees with white collar jobs such as engineers and lawyer. Whereas, small and medium level employees are more likely to get satisfied by increasing in wage or issue of bonuses. Also, this theory emphasised job enrichment more than job satisfaction, and it did not pay much attention to monetary benefits and how companies can use them to motivate their employees. For example, Google Incorporation uses this theory to encourage its employees to improve their performance. The firm focuses on proving a number of hygiene factors to its employees such as high salary package, free learning classes, free food, long maternity leaves, time to work on personal projects, flexible working hours, and many others (Battelle, 2011). These factors attract talented employees from worldwide to Google, and it also improves its retention rates. Importance of Motivation Motivation is a vital element which encourages employees to improve their performance and achieve common organisational goals. The top-level executives implement different motivational theories to improve the productivity of employees. Effective knowledge regarding the attitude and job satisfaction is necessary since it hinders the motivation of workers (Yusoff, Kain and Idris, 2013). For example, managers are required to assess employees requirements and fulfil them in order to motivate them and improve their performance. However, simply providing monetary benefits to employees does not solve the issue of lack of motivation in the workplace. It is necessary the HR executives give importance to job satisfaction and job enrichment to change the attitudes of workers. For example, Maslow Hierarchy of Needs theory provides that in order to motivate an employee, senior level management is required to fulfil his/her needs. Maslow categorised human needs into five categories which include p hysiological, safety, belonging, esteem and self-actualisation (Figure 1) (Cao, et al., 2013). Managers are required to determine the needs of specific employees and fulfil them in order to motivate and improve their performance. However, Denning (2012) argued that in modern society, it is not correct to categories needs into hierarchical order. With the advancement of technology, social connection between people has grown with the advancement of technology and rather than hierarchical, employees focus on collaboration. Rutledge (2011) stated that needs of people are not hierarchical and they need to be rewired as per social media (Figure 2). Maslow did not give importance to social dependency and collaboration which are viewed as basic requirements for human survival. However, Maslow hierarchy of needs model is substantially popular and used by a large number of organisations. Along with attitudes of employees, job satisfaction also hinders the motivation of workers since employees who are not satisfied with their jobs are more likely to avoid organisational policies, resist change and create a negative working environment. Motivation requires that employees must feel like a part of an organisation and they should be welcomed in the firm (Elias, Smith and Barney, 2012). Effective and positive human interactions and relationship are crucial for motivation. However, people have different needs and the motivational theory implemented by the organisation is necessary to be suitable as per employees requirement. Senior-level executives have to assess the factors which negatively affect employees job satisfaction level and implement strategic policies which address such challenges. Only providing monetary incentives did not improve job satisfaction level of workers. Dissatisfied employees are more likely to promote a negative culture in the organisation which le ads to increasing dissatisfaction with other employees, increase disputes, negative work relationship and others (Tan and Waheed, 2011). Organisational behaviour theories enable managers to evaluate the factors which are affecting the job satisfaction level of employees such as hostile working environment, lack of facilities, rude behaviour of co-workers, and others. However, these factors are directly linked to attitudes and job satisfaction of employees because of these factors resulted in increasing negative attitude and job dissatisfaction of workers which reduce their performance. Impact of Lack of Motivation In recent years, senior level management focuses on understanding employees behaviour at work since it provides them crucial information which assists them in the formulation of strategic business policies. Productive employees with good attitude who behave in a professional manner assist corporations in improving their performance and achieving common organisational objectives (Parvin and Kabir, 2011). Customers often view the behaviour of employees and analyse how top-level management runs the operations of the company. Employees who put extra effort in order to satisfy the demand or requirement of customers are satisfied with their jobs. On the other hand, employees who did not help customers and behave rudely are more likely to be dissatisfied with their job. Therefore, attitude of an employee directly influences the relationship of customers with the company and it also shows how top-level management is managing the firms operations. For example, Tesco PLC implements Hierarchy o f needs theory in order to assess the requirements of each employee and focuses on fulfilling them in order to ensure that workers behave positively with customers and they focus on establishing positive customer relations (Yamuna and Devi, 2016). Attitudes and job satisfaction also affects the performance of employees and overall enterprise. Employees who work with positive attitude at work are more likely to encourage others as well to improve their performance. On the other hand, dissatisfied workers discourage others from performing as well, and they indulge in disputes with others. The bottom line of customer satisfaction is affected whether employees are capable of effectively performing all duties and function of their job (Klassen and Chiu, 2010). In order to assess employees needs and requirements, managers are requiring creating effective communication channels between them which enable them to interact and collect the feedback from employees. The leadership styles of modern CEOs are changing. Instead of focusing on macho and hierarchical styles, leaders focus on authentic and humble for of leaders. The popularity of authentic and humble leadership styles such as servant, charismatic, participatory and Laisse-Faire i s growing rapidly. All these leadership styles focus on analysing employees attitudes and job satisfaction in order to implement strategic policies that improve the firms overall performance (Bushra, Ahmad and Naveed, 2011). However, it is also becoming difficult for leaders to encourage each employee as the size of organisations grows. In multinational companies, leaders face difficulties in managing motivation since they cannot effectively control and interact with employees in different departments. Limitations There are various limitations on this topic as well since management finds a number of difficulties while analysing employees attitude and job satisfaction. Many researchers have provided that implementing effective motivational strategy did not guarantee that it will improve the performance of employees. In case of multinational corporations, it is difficult for managers to assess or interact with each employee in order to determine his/her needs (Aydogdu and Asikgil, 2011). Just fulfilling employees needs did not encourage them to perform better; instead, managers are required to implement a positive working environment which promotes and support team building and open culture. Job satisfaction is a wide term, and it can mean a number of things for a person, therefore, managers cannot just implement an effective strategy to satisfy each employee. However, establishing and nourishing a positive culture which supports employees can establish positive workplace relationships (Truxillo , et al., 2012). It will result in improving the performance of each employee and the entire corporation. Therefore, while formulating motivational strategies, managers should determine the attitudes and job satisfaction of employees since they influence their effectiveness. Conclusion In conclusion, it is crucial for managers to evaluate employees attitudes and job satisfaction since they directly influence the performance of employees and the company. Managers focus on implementing an effective motivational strategy in order to improve the performance of employees such as Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene theory. Attitude and job satisfaction of employees also influence the effectiveness of motivational theory as well. Employees with a negative attitude are more likely to influence the behaviour and job satisfaction level of other workers as well. The resist and avoid organisational policies which hinder the performance of the corporation as a whole. There are a number of factors which hinders employee motivation such as poor communication channels, lack of focus on employees needs, disputes, negative relationships and others. Negative attitude and job dissatisfaction negatively affect customer satisfaction level which reduces a companys profits. Therefore, it is nece ssary that managers carefully assess employees demands (by using a model such as Hierarchy of needs) and fulfil them in order to motivate them to improve their performance. There are various limitations of this theory as well, such as it did not guarantee that employee performance will be improved. Therefore, managers should evaluate attitude and job satisfaction of employees before implementing a motivational strategy which can assist in improving employees performance and sustaining companys future growth. References Avey, J.B., Reichard, R.J., Luthans, F. and Mhatre, K.H. (2011) Meta?analysis of the impact of positive psychological capital on employee attitudes, behaviors, and performance.Human resource development quarterly,22(2), pp.127-152. Aydogdu, S. and Asikgil, B. (2011) An empirical study of the relationship among job satisfaction, organizational commitment and turnover intention.International review of management and marketing,1(3), p.43. Aziri, B. (2011) JOB SATISFACTION: A LITERATURE REVIEW.Management Research Practice,3(4). Bandura, A. (2011) Social cognitive theory.Handbook of social psychological theories,2012, pp.349-373. Battelle, J. (2011)The search: How Google and its rivals rewrote the rules of business and transformed our culture. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Bushra, F., Ahmad, U. and Naveed, A. (2011) Effect of transformational leadership on employees' job satisfaction and organizational commitment in banking sector of Lahore (Pakistan).International journal of Business and Social science,2(18). Bushra, F., Ahmad, U. and Naveed, A. (2011) Effect of transformational leadership on employees' job satisfaction and organizational commitment in banking sector of Lahore (Pakistan).International journal of Business and Social science,2(18). Cao, H., Jiang, J., Oh, L.B., Li, H., Liao, X. and Chen, Z. (2013) A Maslow's hierarchy of needs analysis of social networking services continuance.Journal of Service Management,24(2), pp.170-190. Clow, D. (2012) The learning analytics cycle: closing the loop effectively. InProceedings of the 2nd international conference on learning analytics and knowledge(pp. 134-138). ACM. Denning, S. (2012) What Maslow Missed. [Online] Forbes. Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/03/29/what-maslow-missed/#cd8bc71661b5 [Accessed 17th March 2018]. Elias, S.M., Smith, W.L. and Barney, C.E. (2012) Age as a moderator of attitude towards technology in the workplace: work motivation and overall job satisfaction.Behaviour Information Technology,31(5), pp.453-467. Klassen, R.M. and Chiu, M.M. (2010) Effects on teachers' self-efficacy and job satisfaction: Teacher gender, years of experience, and job stress.Journal of educational Psychology,102(3), p.741. Lazaroiu, G. (2015) Employee motivation and job performance.Linguistic and Philosophical Investigations,14, p.97. Parvin, M.M. and Kabir, M.N. (2011) Factors affecting employee job satisfaction of pharmaceutical sector.Australian journal of business and management research,1(9), pp.113. Rutledge, P.B. (2011) Social Networks: What Maslow Misses. [Online] Psychology Today. Available at: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/positively-media/201111/social-networks-what-maslow-misses-0 [Accessed 17th March 2018]. Rutledge, P.B. (2015) Revising Maslows Hierarchy for a Socially Networked World. [Online] Psychology21c. Available at: https://psychology21c.org/2015/10/revising-maslows-hierarchy-socially-networked-world/ [Accessed 17th March 2018]. Smith, D.B. and Shields, J. (2013) Factors related to social service workers' job satisfaction: Revisiting Herzberg's motivation to work.Administration in Social Work,37(2), pp.189-198. Stello, C.M. (2011) Herzbergs two-factor theory of job satisfaction: An integrative literature review. InUnpublished paper presented at The 2011 Student Research Conference: Exploring Opportunities in Research, Policy, and Practice, University of Minnesota Department of Organizational Leadership, Policy and Development, Minneapolis, MN. Studios Guy. (2018) Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: Theory, Needs, Pyramid. [Online] Studios Guy. Available at: https://studiousguy.com/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs/ [Accessed 17th March 2018]. Tan, T.H. and Waheed, A. (2011) Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and job satisfaction in the Malaysian retail sector: The mediating effect of love of money. Asian Academy of Management Journal, 16(1), pp.73-94. Truitt, D.L. (2011) The effect of training and development on employee attitude as it relates to training and work proficiency.Sage Open,1(3), p.21. Truxillo, D.M., Cadiz, D.M., Rineer, J.R., Zaniboni, S. and Fraccaroli, F. (2012) A lifespan perspective on job design: Fitting the job and the worker to promote job satisfaction, engagement, and performance.Organizational Psychology Review,2(4), pp.340-360. Voon, M.L., Lo, M.C., Ngui, K.S. and Ayob, N.B. (2011) The influence of leadership styles on employees job satisfaction in public sector organizations in Malaysia.International Journal of Business, Management and Social Sciences,2(1), pp.24-32. Weiner, B. 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Sophie Scholl and the White Rose

The Sophie Scholl and the White Rose was a book written by Annete Dumbach and Jud Newborn. It is a well researched and presented book that account for the honor and bravery that was shown by young German students and their philosophy professor. These students were up against Nazism and the Nationalist Socialist movement. This was during the Second World War. The group was involved in the distribution of leaflets that encouraged people to oppose the regime of Adolf Hitler.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Sophie Scholl and the White Rose specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The leaflets campaign was from June 1942 to February 1943. Unfortunately, the six core members of the group were apprehended by the German police and arrested. In 1943, these members faced execution by decapitation. For instance, in 1945, there was the prosecution of one of the key members of the group. Hans Conrad Leipelt was executed for having p articipated in the distribution of Leaflet 6 in the town of Hamburg, Germany. The main theme in the book is the fight against oppression. In the book, we see students trying to come up with strategies that could end the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler. This period marked the darkest days in Europe. Most of the oppression was seen during the deportation of the Jews in 1942. When the Jews were deported, Hans, Jurgen, Sophie and Alexander decided to do something about the oppression of the Nazi regime. They decided to buy a typewriter and a duplicating machine. Hans and Alex wrote the first leaflet bearing the heading, â€Å"Leaflets of The White Rose. As members of The White Rose, the four did work hard, day and night, in secrecy. They produced thousands of leaflets from unknown locations in Germany. These leaflets were send to scholars and medics. In order to divert attention from their activities, Sophie used to buy stamps, as well as paper from different locations. In the book, the t heme of oppression is shown when people who are against the tyranny in the country are arrested and executed. A typical example is Sophie Scholl who is executed for her stand against Jewish deportation. Here, we see her being arrested, interrogated, imprisoned, tried and executed by the government. Additionally, the arrest, trial and execution of Christoph Probst and Hans show the oppression that was going on at that time. The killing of more than 100,000 people in Germany showed that there was oppression. The Nazis killed mainly the handicapped, as well as the ones with generic disorders. To the Nazis, people with generic disorders were degenerates and were, therefore, not worthy living. The major weakness of the book is that it has concentrated so much on only one character at the expense of others. The character, Sophie Scholl, takes a central part of the book despite there being other main character. For instance, her brother Hans also plays a critical role in the fight against Nazi. However, most attention in the book focuses on Sophie.Advertising Looking for report on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, after they were done with printing the leaflets, no one was ready to do the distribution. Thereafter, we see Hans accepting to do the distribution and he was ready to take responsibility. Sophie only comes in assist in the distribution of leaflets. The best quote that sums up this work is â€Å"I am, now as before, of the opinion that I did the best that I could do for my nation. I therefore do not regret my conduct and will bear the consequences that result from my conduct†. This shows how the students were willing to sacrifice for the good of the country. They were ready to take responsibility of whatever they did, as well as what authorities could say. Works Cited Dumbach, Annette, Newborn, Jud. Sophie Scholl and the White Rose. New York: Oneworld Publicat ions, 2007. Print. This report on Sophie Scholl and the White Rose was written and submitted by user Arturo A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

How the USDA Has Addressed Discrimination

How the USDA Has Addressed Discrimination ​The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has made significant progress in addressing allegations of discrimination against minority and women farmers both in the farm loan programs it administers and in its workforce that have hounded it for over a decade, according to the Government Accountability Office (GAO). Background Since 1997, the USDA has been the target of major civil rights lawsuits brought by African-American, Native American, Hispanic, and women farmers. The suits generally accused the USDA of using discriminatory practices to illegally deny loans, delay loan application processing, underfund loan amounts and create unnecessary and burdensome roadblocks in the loan application process. These discriminatory practices were found to create unnecessary financial hardships for minority farmers.Two of the best-known civil rights lawsuits filed against the USDA Pigford v. Glickmanand Brewington v. Glickman - filed on behalf of African-American farmers, resulted in the largest civil rights settlements in history. To date, over $1 billion has been paid to over 16,000 farmers as a result of settlements in the Pigford v. Glickman and Brewington v. Glickman suits.Today, Hispanic and women farmers and ranchers who believe they were discriminated against by the USDA in making or servicing farm loans bet ween 1981 and 2000 can file claims for cash awards or debt relief on eligible farm loans by visiting the USDAs Farmersclaims.gov website. GAO Finds Progress Made In October 2008, the GAO made six recommendations for ways the USDA could improve its performance in resolving farmers discrimination claims and providing minority farmers with access to programs intended to help them succeed. In its report titled, USDAs Progress toward Implementing GAOs Civil Rights Recommendations, the GAO told Congress the USDA fully addressed three of its six recommendations from 2008, made significant progress toward addressing two, and made some progress toward addressing one. (See: Table 1, page 3, of the GAO report) Outreach Programs for Minority Farmers and Ranchers As early as 2002, the USDA committed to improving its support for minority farmers by releasing $98.2 million in grants to supplement its loan programs specifically for minority and small farmers and ranchers. Of the grants, then Sec. of Agriculture Ann Veneman said, We are committed to utilizing all resources available to help farm and ranch families, particularly minority and small producers, who need assistance. Besides the monetary awards, grants for minority farmers and extensive efforts to promote civil rights awareness and equality within the USDA itself, perhaps the most important changes arising from the settlements of the civil rights lawsuits have been the series of USDA outreach programs intended to serve minority and women farmers and ranchers. Some of these programs include: Office of the Pigford Case Monitor: The Office of the Monitor provides access to all court documents, including court orders and decisions related to the Pigford v. Glickman and Brewington v. Glickman lawsuits filed against the USDA on the behalf of African-American farmers and ranchers. The collection of documents provided on the Office of the Monitor website are intended to help persons with claims against the USDA arising from the lawsuits learn about the payments and other relief they are entitled to under the courts rulings.Minority and Socially Disadvantaged Farmers Assistance (MSDA): Operating under the USDAs Farm Service Agency, the Minority and Socially Disadvantaged Farmers Assistance was established specifically to assist minority and socially disadvantaged farmers and ranchers who apply for USDA farm loans. The MSDA also offers the USDA Minority Farm Register to all minority persons involved in farming or ranching. Participants in the Minority Farm Register are mailed re gular updates on the USDAs efforts to assist minority farmers.Women and Community Outreach Programs: Created in 2002, the Community Outreach and Assistance to Women, Limited Resource and Other Traditionally Under Served Farmers and Ranchers Program provides loans and grants to community colleges and other community based organizations for developing outreach projects to provide women and other under-served farmers and ranchers with the knowledge, skills, and tools necessary to make informed risk management decisions for their operations.Small Farms Program: Many of Americas small and family farms are owned by minorities. In the Pigford v. Glickman and Brewington v. Glickman lawsuits, the courts criticized the USDA as having an attitude of indifference toward the needs of minority small farmers and ranchers. The USDAs Small and Family Farm Program, administered by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, is an attempt to correct that.Project Forge: Another minority outreach ef fort of the USDAs National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Project Forge provides assistance and training to the primarily Hispanic and other minority farmers and ranchers in rural regions of South Texas. Operating out of the University of Texas-Pan American, Project Forge has been successful in improving the economic condition in the South Texas region through both its training programs and development of farmers markets.

Tax Avoidance OR International Accounting Standards Dissertation

Tax Avoidance OR International Accounting Standards - Dissertation Example Thus, they maintain a liberal tax system for businesses and maintain a more stricter tax system for individuals. Due to this, most businesses have many options of manipulating tax law to their favour in order to pay less taxes. In principle, taxes are paid to promote social justice and assist the government and corporate sector to meet its objectives and needs. If an individual or business entity fails to pay taxes, they are liable to prosecution and this could result in fines or jail terms (Blankson, 2004: 3). This implies that although failure or refusal to pay taxes could have serious consequences, there are some kind of loopholes which can be explored by corporate entities in order to pay less taxes. The ACCA identifies that everyone must arrange his affairs to pay less taxes and it is not even a patriotic duty to pay more taxes (2009). This means that it might be desirable to arrange one's affairs to pay the minimum tax possible. James identifies that â€Å"tax avoidance involv es the taxpayer using the tax rules to his best advantage to minimise his tax liability† (2009: 129). Hence, the practice of tax avoidance entails the examination of the tax rules to identify the best way of arranging one's affairs to pay the least possible taxes. However, this theory seem to be in conflict with the normal view and spirit of taxation which is to promote social justice. ... It is said that the largest companies are the ones who hire the best tax lawyers and tax planners to cut down their taxes to the barest minimum (Sims, 2011). So in that case, is tax avoidance really legal or not? Aside that, how is tax avoidance carried out? What are the techniques and strong spots through which tax avoidance is carried out? In practice, what are the most dominant ways that are used by corporate entities to avoid taxes? 1.2 Aims and Objectives This research aims at â€Å"undertaking an enquiry into the concept of tax avoidance and an analysis of the techniques used and the main trends and activities that are used in carrying out tax avoidance†. In doing this the following objectives will be explored: 1. A critical review of the concept of tax avoidance and its relative position in the world of finance and business. 2. An examination of the main areas through which tax avoidance is carried out and the strategies used in carrying out tax avoidance. 3. Analysis o f the role of stakeholders: shareholders, employees and the public in the struggle for tax avoidance 4. A critical view of a moral approach to dealing with tax avoidance in the UK. 1.3 Research Design The research would focus mainly on a critical literature review for various levels of analyses. In arriving at this end, the research would involve a thorough examination of secondary sources like textbooks, journals and cases to ascertain the actual position of tax avoidance in the world of business. The critical review of literature will include an examination of authoritative text in ascertaining the most popular trends and systems that are used in reducing taxes in the corporate sector. This will involve the examination of the key elements and aspects of corporate tax

Comprehensive Examination Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Comprehensive Examination Questions - Essay Example These are the consecutive model and the concurrent model. In the case of consecutive model, a teacher would first obtain a certain qualification in one or more than one subjects (which can be a first university degree) and then she/he would study for an extended period of time to obtain an extra qualification in teaching. In certain systems, it is a postgraduate degree. In the case of concurrent model, the student would concurrently study one or more than one academic subject together with the techniques of teaching that subject, which would eventually lead to the eligibility to be a teacher in that subject. Through the above discussion, we understand the beginning of the process of teacher development. Stage theories develop from this very process of ‘making’ a teacher. In this process of teacher development, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations are crucial. In a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that makes it comprehensible to others †¦ (it) also includes an understanding of what makes the learning of specific topics easy or difficult: the conceptions and preconceptions that students of different ages and backgrounds bring them to the learning (Craft et al, 2001). Hence, teacher development would be a stage-wise process that would enable the teacher to handle the various needs of this demanding profession in today’s complex environment. In this context, one of the two current stage theories that would be discussed here is given by R. Fessler and J. Christiansen. According to them, an individual teacher would go across eight life-long stages of career. More or less time would be spent in a given stage according as the organizational and personal environment influencers. These eight stages in the Fessler and Christiansen Teacher Career Cycle can be defined as Preservice, Induction, Competency Building, Enthusiastic and Growing, Career Frustration, Stability, Career Wind-Down, and

The Concept of Acculturation

The Concept of Acculturation Acculturation has been defined in many ways and various definitions are provided to give a better understanding of the concept. According to Suinn and Khoo, acculturation is a process that can occur when two or more cultures interact . Furthermore, Berry defined acculturation as a process concerning two or more cultural groups with consequences for both; in effect however, the contact experiences have much greater impact on the non-dominant group and its members . This chapter explains briefly the theoretical concepts at the basis of this study and focuses on the acculturation process of Indian American immigrants with respect to their dress, food, marriage customs, religion and language. As Indians have a very diverse and rich culture going back to thousands of years, one can assume that it may be very difficult for them to change or adapt to a new culture and tradition when they immigrate to America. At the same time we have to assume that Indian culture has also undergone changes within the past 50 years. Some of these issues are discussed in this section with representative examples. It is very important to understand the concepts of cultural change before discussing acculturation. A bilinear model regarding the adaption to a new culture is proposed by John Berry and his colleagues . These authors theorized the following four acculturation attitudes: integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization based on combining either high or low levels of acculturation and enculturation: (see Figure 3.1). The meaning of these four different attitudes is explained. As John Berry claims, integration involves immigrants accepting the new culture, while maintaining close ties with their original culture. These immigrants learn and follow local customs without losing their bond with their customs from their homeland. They are both highly acculturated and enculturated as shown in the diagram below . Assimilation, on the other hand, involves immigrants who totally accept the new culture, and reject their original culture. These immigrants will learn the language and follow local customs so thoroughly that no trace of their original heritage remains. People become assimilated in American society when they erased their cultural identity, unlearned their ethnic cultural practices and beliefs, and accepted the core values of mainstream American culture . Separation occurs when immigrants reject their new culture and live according to the customs of their original culture. These immigrants move to a new culture and find people from their homeland, and live as if they are still in their original culture, only in a different place . Marginalization represents immigrants who reject the new as well as their original culture. These immigrants no longer feel comfortable with their heritage, but the new culture does not appeal to them either . According to Berry, the attitude affects the process of acculturation. For example, as immigrants prepare to go to the U.S., they may have decided to assimilate into the culture. However, upon arrival they discover that they reject some customs of their new country. As a result they change their attitude from assimilation to integration. Thus, the attitude changes according to the various traits of the immigrants. Portes and Rumbaut argue for three major factors that can impact and change the attitude of immigrants. According to Portes and Rumbaut three factors are vital to understanding the acculturation trajectories of contemporary migrants. The first factor is their educational background, fluency in the English language, and economic and class status in their homeland. The second factor refers to the social policies of the host government and the historical and contemporary perceptions and attitudes of the mainstream society toward a particular immigrant group. The third factor is the immigrants social presence and networks and their family structure. The educational background of the immigrant groups and their social class back home are the social and cultural capital that they bring with them, which has an enormous impact on their economic assimilation. Although all three factors help determine how immigrants will acculturate into the larger mainstream American society, the second factor is the most relevant to shaping the acculturation outcomes of many nonwhite immigrants, especially of t hose immigrant groups who have little social and cultural capital and are not white. Even though the Indian Diaspora is racially distinct from the larger American mainstream, professional Indian Americans have an abundance of human-cultural capital acquired through their advanced education, knowledge of the English language, and social class in their home country. The low political profile of the Indian Diaspora also gives them a degree of invisibility that shields them from the scrutiny of the larger mainstream culture . The three major factors of acculturation presented by Portes and Rumbaut naturally change the course of the process for many immigrants. For example, an immigrant with poor English skills, who is determined to assimilate, may find it impossible because of the language barrier and decide instead to integrate into or even separate from the host culture. Bhatias work illustrates the process of how these factors affect Indian immigrants as they adapt to their new culture. Indians after immigrating to America, inevitably undergo some type of adjustment or acculturation process. Though inside the home Indian immigrants could maintain their culture, once outside the home, the system or society itself forced Indians into the acculturation process on all levels of culture. It is necessary to understand how immigrants acculturate in the U.S. As Waters and Bhatia suggest, unlike many Caribbean immigrants, most Indian professionals are middle class, live in suburban America, and are not subject to the structural inequalities of low wages, racism, and violent neighborhoods . However, there are some parallels in how both these groups of migrants come to terms with their racial and ethnic identity. On one hand, the Indian migrants are very proud of their Indian ethnicity and heritage. On the other hand, they invoke what Bhatia calls the discourse of sameness [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] and universal humanity to distance themselves from their racial and ethnic identity . I n other words, they realize that certain costs associated with being Indian are painful and hurtful and that invoking the discourse of sameness is meant to establish equivalence with the white majority. For example, Indian immigrants compare their experiences in the work place with those experiences of white Americans in an attempt to show equality with the majority. In one of Bhatias interviews an immigrant credits his own hard work and accomplishments for his position in the company, while: If I was a white American male, you know, maybe there would be prejudice because Im too short. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] So being an Indian, I dont think it put me at a different spot. Or at least, thats how I feel . Sunil Bhatias study demonstrates that the members of the transnational Indian Diaspora are more comfortable with a cultural identity than a racial identity because their insertion in the transnational Diaspora has transformed them from being Indian to being people of color . The research illustrates the complicated nature of the acculturation of Indian immigrants. As demonstrated above, the attitude of the immigrants toward their new host country is only a starting point for the process. As these immigrants experience their new culture, their own personal background reshapes their attitude, and changes the way they interact with people, regardless of nationality. Clearly Indian immigrants move through a process as they acculturate to their new surroundings. While Berry, Portes and Rumbaut and Bahtia all approach the subject from different directions and perspectives, and though they may not agree with one another, it is clear that each body of research illustrates a complicated process of acculturation. Taken individually the research results may appear to be contradictory, however, a closer analysis shows that their research actually supports one another. The attitude of the immigrants, studied by Berry, plays a major role in the process, but these attitudes may change in response to the three major factors affecting acculturation presented by Portes and Rumbaut. This ever changing process has been documented in Bhatias work, which demonstrates that immigrants adapt individually to their new culture, in this case the United States. That means there is no set formula for determining what will happen to an immigrant once he or she arrives. This process takes place within any immigrant to any country, therefore it will be beneficial to de monstrate specifically some of the elements unique to Indian immigrants, and how these elements influence the process. Influencing Elements of Acculturation Family Perhaps the most important element to consider for Indian immigrants is family. As these Indian immigrants relocate to the U.S., start a family and begin the process of finding their place in society, it is important to understand the processes which influence the impact of acculturation on their families. To first-generation Indian immigrants and their children, family plays a vital role in their lives. Hodge agrees with this assessment, and points out the stark difference between Indian culture and western culture. Western culture emphasizes the individual, material success and secularism. The Indian culture, by contrast, places much more value on community, especially the family, and on spiritual matters . Acculturation plays an important role in understanding about the family structure, including family conflict as well as differences between first and second-generations. For example, the process and outcomes of acculturation determine which values are important to the first-generation and therefore retained and passed on to the succeeding generations. In addition, the process of acculturation might also determine expectations for subsequent generations. For example an assimilated individual would expect the same from his or her children. Most of the work reviewed on acculturation includes some variables related to the family structure, including family conflict, specifically intergenerational family conflict. Some scholars dedicated their studies to South Asian families. Among them, for example, Mathews provided a more general consideration of South Asian families to explain how they function. First, she explains the relationship of the family in a social order, where the father is usually considered the head of the family, which continues to be the traditional way of Indian families in America. Furthermore, she describes the role of both father and mother in the family, in which the mother usually takes care of the household and raises the children and the father usually serves as decision maker and provider . Bringing up the children in a new and different culture, which often conflicts with their core ethnic values, creates problems for not only the parents but also for their children. As values may be extracted from both the native culture and host culture, it is inevitable that conflicts arise. Thus, in this case both parents and children struggle to balance family values of their own culture with the family values of the mainstream culture. In addition, according to the traditional Indian family, the eldest person is considered to be a decision maker such as career decisions for family members or approving marriages. This naturally means parents, especially in the first-generation, make the important decisions . Clearly the attitude of immigrants from India to the U.S. will be greatly influenced by the strength of their bond to their traditional family values. This attitude will steer them through their acculturation process. Dress According to Khandelwal, Indian American immigrants have a mixed type of acculturation regarding dress. It is quite different for men as compared to women. In the case of men, they adopted western dress more easily than women due to the influence of colonialism. Indian American men started wearing a western style of dress even from the first-generation. However, most of these first-generation Indian immigrants do not have a correct idea of the weather and climate system of the U.S. For example, an Indian man, who came to America in the winter of 1994, was wearing a light silk suit and shivering outside. One old man saw him and told him: Son, this is not the time to show off your new silk suit. I told you how it is going to be cold here today. If you catch a cold or become sick, nobody will take care of you in this country. Here you have to take care of yourself. All the money your family spent on making this suit for America will go down drain in one doctors visit here. There will be other occasions when you can use this suit! . Indian women immigrants are recognized mainly by their traditional dress called sari. Accordingly many female Indian immigrants try to preserve their culture by continuing to wear this kind of traditional dress. Saris are considered works of art due to the careful design and color combinations. However, in the workplace they alternatively wear western style clothing. An Indian woman who immigrated to America during the 1990s was forced to wear Western dress due to her job requirements as a cashier in a store. She said the following: See, I have to wear these mens clothes here. Its ok because I am doing mens job here. Our clothes do not fit in this American culture. To feel Indian, we can wear our own clothes when we are not on the job Before coming to America, she had never worked outside of her house and wore only traditional clothing. However, she adapted to the Western dress because American culture forced her to do so . Khandelwal continues to suggest that US born immigrant children are unlikely to continue wearing traditional dress. For example, young female immigrants in America prefer having readily made kurta-pyjama outfits to the saris, because they do not know how to wear these saris . At the same time, weddings among Indian Americans still continue to be traditional, in which the couple wears traditional dresses either bought in America or brought from India during a visit to the home country. However, due to some specific reasons, some of the Indian American immigrants and their children mostly use western styles only. For example, Nikki Haley, a daughter of Sikh Indian immigrants and one of the current rising stars in the Republican Party, wears mostly a suit, rejecting the sari in order to gain greater public acceptance while running for governor of South Carolina in November 2010 . There is a significant difference in clothing style between India and the U.S. Immigrants who desire to retain their cultural style of dress will have different experiences with acculturation than those who are willing to accept western standards. This plays a bigger role in the lives of women immigrants than for men. Religion Religion plays a major role in the life style of Asian Indian Americans. Religious beliefs and practices are intricately interwoven with the aspects of acculturation and cultural identity of these immigrants. So it is important to understand the influence of religion on the acculturation of Asian Indian immigrants. India is a country of diverse religions such as Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Judaism and Buddhism. Among these religions, 82.6 % of Indians practice the Hindu religion which makes up a clear majority of the population, while the remaining 17.4% of the population practices Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Judaism and Parsis . These percentages reflect the population of India; however, Pakistan and Bangladesh have larger percentages of population which practice Islam. The existence of many religions in India indicates that religion plays a major role for Indian people. Thus, most of the Indian people have one religious belief, whether it is Hindu, Islam, Christianity, etc. Each immigrant community brought its own sociological traditions from its place of origin, including ethical and religious behaviors. In the same way when Indians first started to migrate to the United States, they essentially had to carry out religious practices and teachings on their own . As the population of immigrants practicing Hinduism increased, so increased the number of religious organizations. With the development of a greater Hindu population practicing religion at home and in specific religious organizations became the norm. Leonard also noted that as the number of Indian immigrants has increased, religion has naturally become more important, as it has become a part of Indian American identity. Hinduism helps Indian Americans differentiate themselves in the United States, from mainstream U.S. culture as well as from other Asian and South Asian groups . Like earlier immigrants, the post-1965 Indian immigrants maintained their belief system, which provided an important way to keep and transmit their values to following generations . Most of the Indian immigrants in America can practice their religion. As an Indian immigrant Rupu notes: I think thats what it is about America. Thats what brought everybody here. Its that being American you can be who you want to be and still be an American. Theres a freedom of religion, a freedom of expression . In America, the practice of Hinduism reflects its American surroundings. For instance, most related religious activities take place on weekends in order to suit work schedules and priests explain sacred texts in English, rather than Hindi or Sanskrit . Asian American immigrants faced lot of challenges due to strong religious beliefs which influenced their acculturation. For example, their religious beliefs may be challenged or even given up as they are exposed to the religious beliefs, practices, symbols, and rhetoric of the mainstream culture. For Asian American immigrants who are faced with prejudice, racism, and discrimination, religious conversion may provide a sense of refuge and facilitate processes of assimilation and acculturation, which may explain why the majority of Asian Americans in the United States identify themselves as Christian . But one should not assume that Asian American immigrants adopt Christianity merely as a way to be accepted by the majority culture. Indeed, for some Asian American immigrants, Christianity is their religion of choice. However, it is different in the case of immigrants from India. As Khandelwal claims, unlike other Asian immigrants, Indians who are mostly from Hindu religion, have displayed little questioning of their faiths and they are unlikely to convert to another religion. Moreover, Hinduism, the dominant religion in India, faces the challenge of being a minority religion in America, where Christianity is dominant . These immigrants will therefore face the challenge of maintaining their belief system in the minority, which is opposite from their homeland. This in turn, will affect their acculturation process greatly as they struggle with their religious views. Clearly religion plays a major role in the process of adapting to a new culture. Religion is especially important for Asian Indian immigrants, who already place a high value on their own belief system. Whether holding fast to their own religion, or converting to some other religion, these immigrants will practice some kind of religion after their arrival in the U.S. Food Indians who have a vast variety of food habits have a hard time adapting easily to Western food. One of the major causes for this lies in the great number of religions practiced by Indian immigrants. As a result of religious food laws many of Indias people do not consume animal products, which include eggs. The work of Bankston and Hidalgo shows that Indian immigrants are highly unwilling to change their food consumption habits. For example, most Indian Hindus avoid beef and pork, while Pakistanis avoid pork and alcoholic beverages. Most Indians prefer meals from their own culture. However, in households with children, American style meals have become more frequent . Indians have preferred home-cooked meals for a long time, and it has been a part of their culture. They believe that eating at home together with all members of their family is an important ritual for bonding with each other. Many Indian Americans continue to preserve their traditional food habits in America. However, most of the Indians are also adapting to Western food. One example is that pizza is the next alternative food in popularity when compared to their native foods, as well as a timesaver when cooking at home. Indian parents in America expect their children to appreciate home-cooked food more than meals eaten outside the home, although sometimes US born children have a hard time understanding why they need to eat homemade food . Some Indians run Indian restaurants, where they serve national food for not only Indians but also other Americans. As Indian food is mainly spicy, the waiters ask American customers if they prefer their food mild, medium or spicy. One owner of an Indian restaurant had the following to say: I have seen situations where Indian food can send them sweating all over [running to decrease their spiciness by drinking more water or juices] that is not good for our business, so we try to accommodate them . For many Indian immigrants food plays a major role in the acculturation process. While religion prohibits complete adaptation to American food, traditional spices and preparation of Indian cuisine varies greatly from that of Western cuisine. This also plays a role in preventing some Indians from accepting the new style of food. Naturally everyone must eat, therefore food plays a major role in the acculturation process. Marriage Customs According to Indian tradition, Indians get married based on an arranged marriage usually within their own community. This tradition has been preserved from generation to generation. The selection of a marriage partner depends on a set of persons recommended by the partners families (with the full approval and consent of the parents). Family or community members continue to be involved in the selection of a suitable mate. The family and educational backgrounds of the potential partner are thoroughly examined before introductions are made. Indians believe that their children will be happier if they are married to someone who shares the same history, tradition, religion, and social customs and who will be able to impart these values to their children, thus ensuring the continuity of the community. They believe that such marriages made within the community tend to be more stable and long lasting than those that cross community borders . In fact, many American born Asian Indians encounter tremendous obstacles in dating and marriage. On the one hand, their parents warn them not to date until they marry and expect that the children get married according to an arranged marriage which is a custom brought over from India . Indian parents believe that sexual contact before the marriage is immoral and corrupt. On the other hand, the American born children have friends for whom dating is very common and normal. These immigrants desire to fit in the environment in which they find themselves. Accordingly there have been many cases where some Indian lovers are secretly married, and in the worst case, some couples have committed suicide as of result of their relationship being rejected by family. However, some Asian Indian American men and women still prefer to return to their homelands for arranged marriages. In these cases, family members at home seek out appropriate possibilities for marriage to their son or daughter. At the right time, the son or daughter returns home to choose from the candidates assembled by their family . Even the other religion practiced by these immigrants plays a role in the process of acculturation. For example Muslim parents usually accept interfaith marriages for boys, because children customarily follow the fathers faith. However, daughters face a greater challenge because parents do not want their grandchildren to lose their Islamic affiliation . Some Indians came after their marriage in India, whereas some came as students. Most of the students have returned to India for getting married. There are also a few instances where an Indian married an American because of the relationship between the countries and individuals. Other Indians have dated Americans. However, the fact is that dating is not a traditional Indian custom and Indian parents tend to warn their children not to date, although they are slowly yielding to their offsprings demands to be allowed to date . The situation of arranged marriages in India is changing too. As second-generation immigrants Sanjay and Veera observed that: Even in India you see people pushing back and becoming more Westernized, more mainstream. Ive seen my cousins, and [by, #184] leaps and bounds, theyve gone past what is traditional. [Indian American young adults] dont drink and smoke and have lived a sheltered life. Theyve always lived at home and havent gone out much. My cousins in India are more advanced. A lot of my cousins married their boyfriends . Customs surrounding marriage can have a major impact on the acculturation process. Especially for those coming from India, where marriages are still arranged by family, the concept of dating before marriage creates an obstacle for many parents and their children. While customs among Indian immigrants are changing, allowing for young people to find their own spouse, many first-generation immigrants have a hard time letting go of old habits. For these families the acculturation process will be influenced by the marriage customs of the U.S. Language Different languages are spoken in India depending on different regions. Some languages are quite independent and difficult to understand by the neighboring people who speak a different language. In spite of these language differences, most people are able to speak Hindi due to its status as a national language and English due to British colonial rule for two centuries in India. The Indian government recognized the English language as an additional official language. Language is one of the main norms that brings people together and helps them to adapt to the U.S. Proficient English knowledge is one of the reasons Indians migrate to America, and it also helps them to assimilate more easily into life in America . After 1965 most of the Indians arrived in America from different language groups. However, they all knew English. Most immigrants join Indian communities, where they can practice not only Hindi but also their regional language. As Khandelwal claims, first and second-generation immigrants practice different uses of language in America. As for the first-generation, they tend to speak English and at the same time they tend to maintain their native language. However, first-generation immigrants face linguistic problems to speak American English due to their thick Indian accent. The second-generation immigrants who are already born and brought up in the US are usually thought to speak English with an American accent and rejected their parents Indian accent, in turn; their parents considered their childrens English as too American. These second-generation Indian immigrants are involved with Indian languages through movies, songs or when they visit India. Though they understand their parents language, most of them are not able to speak or to write it . According to Khandelwal, the first-generation immigrants tend to be more integrated speaking both English and their mother tongue, whereas the second-generation grows up speaking English as a mother tongue and learn their parents language only to satisfy their parents wishes. Obviously, language plays an important role in the acculturation process for Indian immigrants. While many immigrants have already learned English before they arrived, their English proficiency affects their ability to assimilate into the new culture.